Social Research in Transport (SORT) Clearinghouse

Social impacts and social equity issues in transport workshop series: Workshop 2: Health Perspectives

Tanja Pless-Mulloli et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:35 PST

Many of the positive and negative health consequences associated with transport are well acknowledged: Motorised vehicles are known as a source of localised air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions in turn impact directly on respiratory and cardiac health in exposed populations (COME 2006; Hoek et al. 2002; Le Tertre et al. 2002), and contribute to indirect health effects of climate change (World Health Organization 2009). Motorised transport also contributes to our increasingly sedentary lifestyle (Hill and Peters 1998), which in turn play a part in growing proportions of the population being overweight and obese. Numerous secondary health risks are associated with these conditions, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer, osteoarthritis and work disability. Furthermore, road transport is directly responsible for a significant burden of morbidity and mortality; in Great Britain, in 2009, there were 163,554 road accidents reported to the police involving personal injury, and 2,222 traffic related deaths (National Statistics 2009). In contrast, ‘active transport’ (walking and cycling) is seen to be associated with a wide range of health benefits (Haskell et al. 2009; Johan de Hartog et al. 2010), and reduced greenhouse gas/air pollution emissions (Dennekamp and Carey 2010; Lindsay et al. 2011; Rissel 2009). However, despite the acknowledged benefits of active transport, there has been a 24 percent decline in the number of trips made on foot (292 to 221 trips per person per year 1995/97 to 2008; (Department for Transport 2009), and a decline in the number of primary and secondary school children walking to school (53 and 42% in 1995/97 versus 48% and 40% in 2008) for primary and secondary school children respectively) (Department for Transport 2009). In the UK, up to 40% of the road traffic in the morning peak hour now estimated to be involved in some way in the school run (Mudu et al. 2006). Our transport systems affect our ability to access work, education and services, as well as social activities, all of which are important for maintaining health and wellbeing. However, transport and transport availability is not equitably spread across the population. People on low incomes, in chronic ill-health, or with limited mobility may be less able to access or pay for the transport systems they need to acquire work, education and services (Jarvis and Alvanides 2008). Those on low incomes are also more likely to suffer the adverse effects of road traffic, for instance exposure to air pollution and noise (Marshall et al. 2009; Namdeo and Stringer 2008; O'Neill et al. 2003). Mitchell & Dorling (2003) completed a comprehensive review of UK air quality social equity studies and concluded that most studies investigating the relationship between air quality and deprivation, tended to show that air pollution is greater in more deprived communities (Mitchell and Dorling 2003). These inequalities are complex (Briggs, David et al. 2008; Deguen and Zmirou-Navier 2010), but can be framed within the theory of environmental justice, in that some groups are disproportionately subject to environmental hazards and disadvantage predisposing them to poor health (Gee and Payne-Sturges 2004). It is becoming increasingly recognised that patterns of behaviour established in infancy and childhood influence later behaviour, meaning that disadvantage in childhood may exert a lifelong health and social affect. Physical activity, smoking, and diet are socially patterned, with behaviours established in adolescence being shown to ‘track’ into adulthood (Due et al. 2011). In the context of travel and health, travel behaviours established in childhood may set the pattern for healthful or less healthful behaviours throughout the life course. However, a more 6 detailed understanding of the development of such pathways is still very much needed to design effective, sustainable and acceptable policies that will encourage more healthful travel behaviour. To briefly outline the state of the art thinking on transport and health we are including the abstracts from the two papers submitted to the Journal of Transport Geography that resulted from this workshop. The first paper is entitled ‘Public health consequences of transport policy’ by Dr Eugene Milne, reflecting a public health practitioner’s approach to transport issues within strategic improvement of health and wellbeing. The second, entitled ‘Towards an interdisciplinary science of transport and health: A case study on school travel’ by Dr Susan Hodgson, Dr Anil Namdeo, Dr Vera Araujo-Soares and Prof Tanja Pless-Mulloli, outlining key concepts using knowledge, skills and evidence from transport and exposure science, civil engineering, health psychology and behaviour change as well as sustainability

Social impacts and social equity issues in transport workshop series: Workshop 3 Report: Housing and sustainable Communities

Laura Lane et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:29 PST

Workshop Three took a predominantly urban focus and aimed to build on the considerable research of Professor Power and colleagues at the LSE in relation to low income communities and urban areas both in the UK and abroad. It considered the accessibility impacts and transport needs of different populations within major urban renewal project areas and how transport could be better integrated into urban planning and regeneration. It also focused on the role of space in cities and urban areas and more sustainable forms of transport including public transport, cycling and walking. The workshop was designed to explore: 1. Inequality and the impact on disadvantaged communities of concentrated poverty 2. Urban research related to poorer communities – international perspective 3. Transport and accessibility problems as they affect: • Employment opportunities • Local environments • Energy and transport costs • Local service quality 4. Integrating lower income communities into the wider city • The role of public transport • The role of social space and traffic taming • The value of compact cities and density – the balance between mobility, choice and sustainability

Social impacts and social equity issues in transport workshop series: Workshop 1: Employment, Education and Training Perspectives

Anne E. Green — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:24 PST

The workshop was designed to explore: • Challenges of the changing geography of employment and new ways of working; • The limits to travel-to-work; • Immobility as a barrier to employment and access to jobs for workless people; • Inequalities in access to training and implications for skills development; and • Policy initiatives – including a practitioner perspective. There were two discussion sessions – focusing on: • Research themes and methodologies; and • Issues for policy.

National travel survey analysis

Gordon Stokes et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:18 PST

How poverty relates to travel behaviour is a huge subject which one paper cannot address in all its detail. This paper concentrates on a few key measures of travel and focuses on those in the lowest income quintile as a proxy for low income and poverty. It looks at the types of people in the lowest income quintile before studying the effect of income on behaviour and exploring concepts and measures of transport ‘poverty’, transport ‘wealth’ and transport ‘affordability’. The purpose of this TSU working paper is to act as an exploratory source document rather than to present policy conclusions. Much analysis presented is not used to draw conclusions but to provide a resource for other researchers wanting to know more about the subject. It is based primarily on analysis of the National Travel Survey provided by the Department for Transport via the UK data archive. The paper is unique in that whilst other analyses of the NTS abound they don’t focus on the issue of poverty. Most analysis is based on the 2002-2008 dataset released by the UK data archive in 2010 (with further requested variables kindly added by Department for Transport staff), but some analysis looks at trend data also using the 1995 to 2001 set. Key findings Section 2 briefly summarises previous research that has been carried out on the travel behaviour of those on lower incomes. It concludes that there has been a fair amount of research into transport and poverty, exclusion and disadvantage but little has taken a large scale quantitative overview. Section 3 looks at the characteristics of those on low incomes. The analysis points to low income being related to age, gender, ethnic group, living arrangements and household structure. But low income is also related to transport characteristics such as the presence of absence of a car in the household. While the lack of a car will usually be thought of as a result of low income this may not always be the case – for example disability can lead to the inability to use a car which can lower people’s income opportunities. Mobility difficulty is more prevalent amongst those on lower incomes, especially for people under retirement age. Section 4 contains basic analyses of the travel behaviour of those on low incomes, comparing their behaviour to those on higher incomes. The amount of travel made (measured by trips, distance and time spent travelling) is strongly related to income, and also to other variables such as gender, economic activity, age, and are of residence. Analysis of averages for different groups shows the bulk of variation is much greater amounts of travel by a large minority of people, and these effects 3 Travel behaviour of low income households – an analysis of the 2002-2008 National Travel Survey are much greater for higher income groups. About 70% of people in the highest income decile travel further per week than all but 20% of those in the lowest income decile. The amount of car driving (and use of a car as a passenger) is more affected by income than other aspects of travel behaviour such as public transport use. Though being in full time employment is strongly related to car ownership and use. Air travel is not ‘the reserve’ of those on high incomes, but like car travel the major differences are much greater amounts of air travel by some on higher incomes than lower amount by those on lower incomes. 75% of those in the lowest income quintile did not fly in the year before the survey. There is little difference in the age that children are allowed to travel independently to school according to income group, but the reasons for parents not wishing their children to travel independently varies. Section 5 then looks at how travel behaviour for different income groups has changed over time concentrating on changes between 1995 and 2008, the period for which relatively consistent data is available from the National Travel Survey (see Annex One). Since 1995 people in higher income quintiles have travelled a shorter distance per person (from 12,200 miles per year down to 11,200), while those in the lowest income quintile have travelled about the same (about 4,300 miles per year). At the same time people on the lowest incomes (in absolute terms) – less than £5000 per year, have increased their ownership and use of cars (with ownership rates rising from 20% to 50% between 1995 and 2008, while those on the highest incomes (over £50,000 per year) have reduced their car use. Section 6 uses regression analysis to try to ascertain the relative importance of different factors in affecting travel behaviour, to assess the importance of income relative to factors such as stage in lifecycle, rurality, economic activity, disability, ethnic group etc. Regression analysis points to income being one of the key factors relating to measures of travel behaviour (trips per week, time spent travelling and distance travelled), but is secondary to economic activity, and has a similar effect to some other variables such as ethnic group, living in high IMD area score areas, and rurality. Section 7 uses cluster analysis, recognising that the ‘average’ travel behaviour of low income people is made up of different types of behaviour. It groups people according to aspects of their behaviour into groups such as those who make little travel, and those who use cars for most of their journeys. Cluster analysis shows that there is a large group of people on low incomes who make little travel, and do not use a car. In all income groups this is a relatively large group, but for people on low incomes the group is much larger and the numbers of trips smaller. There is also a group who use cars a great deal, but this group is small in the lowest income quintile. Increased prevalence of this group amongst those on lower incomes is found especially in full time and part time workers, and home-makers. Section 8 discusses notions of transport poverty, transport affordability and transport wealth and includes tentative analyses of what we can surmise about these notions from NTS data. There is no simple way to measure ‘transport poverty’ or ‘transport affordability’ but patterns of travel behaviour relate strongly to incomes, with people in lower income households tending to be much 4 Travel behaviour of low income households – an analysis of the 2002-2008 National Travel Survey less likely to have a car available, likely to make fewer trips per week, and to travel shorter distances per week. ‘Transport wealth’ can be described as the transport and accessibility opportunities available to people – in terms of access to modes (car, bus, rail etc), and to the ability to reach services on foot. Analysis of this area is tentative, but points to car availability being very strongly related to income, while access to bus, rail and walk access is not related so much to income, but is related to areas with different Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) levels with poorer IMD areas tending to have better access (being more likely to be in inner urban areas). Finally Section 9 discusses the key findings and implications that can be drawn. Unlike fuel poverty which is relatively easy to define and measure, ‘transport poverty’ or ‘transport wealth’ is much more complex. This analysis points to real issues that need to be addressed, but isolating those for whom improvement is needed is not straightforward. There is a question mark over whether the most fruitful approach for further work on transport poverty and wealth would be to explore the issues in greater analytical detail, or to educate transport practitioners and those from other areas of policy in the issues that are raised.

The Social and Distributional Impacts of Transport: A Literature Review

Julia Markovich et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:12 PST

Despite the widely acknowledged significance of the social impacts of transport in political and public life and their distributional effects across various segments of society, this issue has received less policy attention relative to economic and environmental impacts. The aim of this working paper is to synthesise and critically evaluate the currently disparate literatures pertaining to the social impacts and equity of transport, transport disadvantage as it pertains to different social groups, and the wider interactions between transport poverty and social exclusion. It summarises what is known about these issues at the present time, identifies gaps in the knowledge base and draws attention to opportunities for further research. The working paper is designed to contribute to a wider scoping study of this topic, which has been funded by the Economic and Social Research Council of Great Britain. Further information about the study can be found at http://www.tsu.ox.ac.uk/research/uktrcse/.

Using a “Sustainable Solution Space” Approach to Develop a Vision of Sustainable Accessibility in a Low-Income Community in Phoenix, Arizona

Leonard Machler et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:07 PST

The sustainability challenges posed by America's automobile-based transport system demand a transition toward more accessible urban areas. Accessibility planning at the neighborhood scale involves improving both non-automobile mobility and the range of services offered within a community. Reflecting the complex system dynamics influencing neighborhood travel behavior and the context of local access needs, we employ the Sustainability Solution Space (SSP) method to envision a sustainable state of transportation accessibility for the Sky Harbor neighborhood of central Phoenix, Arizona. This case study explores the suitability of the SSP methodology for sustainable visioning exercises, recommending its use for participatory transportation planning studies.

Creating accessible journeys

Victorian Council of Social Service — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:03:01 PST

This report has been produced by the Victorian Council of Social Service (VCOSS) to examine the progress towards improving the public transport system in Victoria to meet the needs of a greater variety of users, including people with diverse mobility requirements. It builds upon information collated for our previous report of the Accessible Public Transport Watch Project, which surveyed the mobility needs of people with disabilities. This report uses information from that report, combined with interviews with public transport agencies, the results of a public consultation forum on accessible transport, and relevant academic publications to draw its conclusions. While the total transport system also includes private motor vehicles, taxis, aviation, shipping, active transport modes and community transport services, this report concentrates upon land-based scheduled public transport passenger services and related pedestrian movement in Victoria: i.e. buses, trains, trams and coaches. A key goal of this report is to shift the thinking of government, public transport agencies and the wider community on the need for and benefits of accessibility. It refutes mainstream thinking that accessibility is only a concern for a select group of people with specific disabilities, and instead argues that all Victorians are likely to need and benefit from accessible features at some point in their lives – for instance, as children being transported in prams or pushers, when we experience sickness or injury, as we age, or when we need to travel with luggage or shopping. Accessible public transport is not for ‘other people’, it is for all of us. Improving access to public transport does not mean simply providing more services or carrying more passengers – although these are important. It also means changing the way we deliver transport services to meet the diversity of the travelling public. This means understanding the range of requirements necessary for public transport users, and examining the best way to cater to everyone. In particular, public transport planners, designers and operators need to move away from designing public transport services for a ‘representative person’ – who has a pre-conceived set of presumed capabilities, travel times, destinations, and journey purposes, and instead design for adaptable and multi-use public transport that can cater for a wide variety of people and purposes that are likely to change over time. A greater emphasis on producing access outcomes in the public transport system is required. The ultimate goal of public transport accessibility is that more people with a diversity of mobility requirements actually use the public transport system to reach valuable destinations, and as a result, are able to have a better quality of life. This is the real ‘pay-off’ or ‘value-add’ of accessibility improvements. Yet virtually no-one in the transport system tracks, measures or evaluates these outcomes – with the result that we do not know what real benefits have been created by accessibility investments, nor can we easily determine which investments, or combinations of investments, work best. One problem identified by this report is that there remains a focus on making isolated pieces of public transport infrastructure compliant with accessibility standards, while often ignoring broader concepts of accessibility, whether these pieces fit together, or failing to consider the impacts of operational decisions or the skills of staff on access outcomes. If a journey does not provide a continuously accessible path from beginning to end, then it cannot be used, regardless of how many pieces of compliant infrastructure exist along the way. To address these shortcomings, agencies responsible for public transport planning and operations need to collaborate to ensure that their activities are co-ordinated, as a fragmented, piece-by-piece approach will often miss many opportunities to produce better outcomes. Similarly, the way public transport is planned and designed needs to change to emphasise universal design principles. Universal design is now a widely understood and utilised concept, which is readily adaptable to public transport design, but is not necessarily incorporated or required by public transport agencies. To facilitate universal design and promote consistent levels of accessibility across the public transport system, design, construction and procurement should be underpinned by strong and future-orientated Executive summary CREATING ACCESSIBLE JOURNEYS 4 specifications and guidelines that ensure that the system will provide long-term accessibility improvements. It is not merely the physical design of transport infrastructure and vehicles that produces good access outcomes. Operational decisions, information resources, and staff attitudes and skills are also essential in creating accessible journeys. If operational decisions impede access, information is not inclusive and neglects to provide for people with diverse capabilities for travel, or staff members do not understand the requirements of different users, then the benefits of physical infrastructure can be undermined and the investments wasted. Improving public transport accessibility has many benefits for the people of Victoria. It improves the ability of people with mobility restrictions to make the most of employment opportunities, gain skills and education, access social services and maintain connections with the community. It supports positive and healthy ageing as Victorian society undergoes a demographic change. It supports families with young children by expanding their transport choices and assisting them in managing family budgets. It helps expand mobility options for everyone, including when travelling with trolleys or luggage, or when injured, and thus assists in reducing car dependence. However, these benefits will not materialise if the current ad hoc, uneven, and fragmented approach to accessibility is maintained. Only by making co-ordinated, informed, and widespread changes to the public transport system can we realise the value generated by accessible public transport.

How Affordable is Transportation? A Context-Sensitive Framework

Yingling Fan et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:52 PST

Transportation affordability refers to the financial burden households bear in purchasing transportation services. Traditional measures, which focus on what share of household disposable income or total budget goes to transportation services, often fail to consider the wide variation in households' transportation needs and locational settings. In this project, we propose a contextualized transportation affordability analysis framework that differentiates population groups based upon their socio-demographics, the built environment, and the policy environment. The necessity of such a context-sensitive framework is demonstrated via a case study of the Twin Cities metropolitan area, which shows heterogeneity among different population groups in terms of their transportation needs and resource availability. The proposed context-sensitive framework points to two dilemmas associated with transportation affordability. First, the socio-economically disadvantaged group has the lowest auto ownership rate, yet its transportation needs are better served by automobiles. Second, while automobiles can reduce transportation hardship for the socio-economically disadvantaged, the existing auto-oriented urban landscape in the U.S. requires more travel for access to destinations, which leads to higher transportation costs. The dilemmas call for a multi-modal transportation solution: reducing societal auto dependence and providing financial subsidies for car access among disadvantaged populations are equally important to enhance transportation affordability and social welfare.

Understanding the personal security issues affecting multicultural groups on the GB railway

Rail Safety and Standards Board Ltd — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:46 PST

In 2010, the Rail Personal Security Group (RPSG) expressed interest in developing a research project to better understand the personal security issues on GB railways of particular rail user groups. A steering group was formed and the study scope was restricted to perceptions of personal security on the rail network across different ethnic groups. As part of the process of scoping the work, RPSG decided that it would be useful to conduct a brief initial review of existing research on the personal security issues affecting different minority groups. This review found that the concerns that affect perceptions of personal security are relatively common between groups. In general, people travelling on the rail network report that the following factors improve their perceptions of safety: visibility of rail staff and British Transport Police officers; access to information; adequate lighting; closed circuit television (CCTV) systems; and well-maintained and monitored trains and stations. There are mixed perceptions of the effectiveness of some of these factors between groups and these differences are discussed. As a result of the review, RPSG and the steering group decided that the research project should not be pursued further because from the brief review of literature undertaken it was thought that the scope of the project had effectively already been addressed through other research.

Social Exclusion and the Value of Mobility

John Stanley et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:41 PST

This paper investigates factors likely to increase a person's risk of social exclusion, drawing on survey data specifically framed for this purpose. We use a generalised ordered logit model that accounts for observed and unobserved heterogeneity and derive the marginal effects for each influencing attribute. We find that people are less likely to be at risk of social exclusion if they have regular contact with significant others, have a sense of community, are not poor, are mobile, and are open to new experiences which enable them to grow on a personal level. The value of an additional trip is estimated at $A20.

Oil vulnerability: the effect of non-metropolitan areas and master planned estates in South East Queensland 2001–2006

Rebecca Runting et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:35 PST

This study quantified and visualised oil vulnerability (OV) across Statistical Local Areas (SLAs) of South East Queensland (SEQ), and its changes between 2001 to 2006, with specific focus on Master Planned Estates (MPEs). A classification chart was developed to categorise different types of OV, and to identify SLAs that showed significant change in their level of OV over the period from 2001 to 2006. Our findings are that non-metropolitan SLAs exhibited significantly higher OV due to: (i) the lack of alternatives to private motor vehicle use; (ii) longer road network distances travelled on average; and (iii) a generally lower socioeconomic status associated with these areas. Metropolitan SLAs had consistently lower OV due to: (i) a shorter average commuting distance; (ii) more comprehensive non-motorised access to public transport; and (iii) a generally higher socioeconomic status. SLAs containing large MPEs also proved to be more vulnerable due to their relatively high automobile dependence, limited non-motorised access to public transportation, and longer average commuting distances.

The voices of taxi users

Victorian Council of Social Service — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:30 PST

On 20 July 2011, the Taxi Industry Inquiry co-hosted a forum with the Victorian Council of Social Service (VCOSS) to discuss taxi and hire car services with people with a disability, mobility disadvantaged people, advocacy groups, local councils, government agencies, and taxi and hire car industry participants. A fact sheet was developed to provide background on the issues raised in feedback from the disability sector in relation to taxi and hire car services.

Community Transport Stocktake

Ipsos-Eureka Social Research Institute — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:24 PST

In April and May of 2011, the Ipsos-Eureka Social Research Institute (Ipsos-Eureka) undertook a survey of community transport providers on behalf of the Victorian Community Transport Association (VCTA). This survey of n=88 providers was designed to better understand who is both delivering and receiving community transport services, and how these services are being delivered. The survey was also designed to provide an insight into whether providers believe demand for their services will increase or decrease in the future. An overwhelming majority of community transport providers believe demand for their services will increase in the next three to five years The vast majority of service providers surveyed (92%) reported that demand for community transport services will increase in the next three to five years; with almost all reporting that the ageing population (99%) and a population with an increased need for access to health services (85%) as major drivers of the increase. Four out of five surveyed (79%) reported that lack of public transport would dictate an increase in demand; with this issue being more acute for those operating in non-metro areas (89%). Community transport providers offer many and varied services and some cover vast distances to deliver these services There are many differences between services, particularly those that operate in metropolitan Melbourne and those that are based in regional and rural Victoria. For example, services based in non-metropolitan Victoria have a much higher reliance on volunteer drivers when compared to metro services. And, while all metropolitan services surveyed owned or leased at least one vehicle, almost one out of every four non-metro services did not. The reasons for trip types also differed; services operating out of non-metropolitan Victoria were more likely to provide community transport for medical appointments, whereas metro services were more likely to offer social outings and leisure activities.

Technological innovations in transportation for people with disabilities workshop summary report

Tom Morton et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:18 PST

The report summarizes a workshop held February 23, 2011 to examine technological innovations in accessible transportation and better understand the requirements of pedestrians and travelers with visual impairment or other disabilities. Part One focuses on the following presentations: Triggering a Virtuous Circle of Self-‐‑Sustaining Accessibility and Transportation; Environmental Awareness for People with Visual Impairments—Gaps, Challenges, and Opportunities; Getting There if You are Blind: Synergistic Convergence of Technologies to Improve Wayfinding; Using Robotics and Artificial Intelligence to Improve Mobility and Navigation of People with Special Needs; Opportunities and Innovations in ITS and Mobile Technology for Accessible Transportation; Making Technology Universally Accessible for all Users, Including Those with Sensory and Cognitive Impairments. Part Two of the report summarizes the group breakout discussions.

Communication with Vulnerable Populations: A Transportation and Emergency Management Toolkit

Deborah Matherly et al. — Wed, 08 Feb 2012 17:02:12 PST

This report describes how to create a communication process to reach vulnerable populations (e.g., people with access and functional needs, whose members may have additional needs before, during and after an incident in functional areas, such as maintaining independence, communication, transportation, supervision, and medical care; examples include the transit-dependent, disabled, poor, low English proficiency persons, and racial and ethnic minorities) regarding their transportation options in emergencies. This toolkit provides a guiding framework and tools for constructing a scalable, adaptable communication process built on a network of agencies from public, private, and nonprofit sectors. Together, these partners will form interconnected communication channels with the ability to carry out the function of emergency communication in far-reaching and resourceful ways not possible by working alone. This toolkit will be useful to state departments of transportation and their regional divisions; transit agencies; metropolitan planning organizations; state and local emergency managers; other public agencies, such as public health and public safety; local and regional elected or appointed officials and tribal leaders; community-based and faith-based organizations; and private businesses and industries.

Mode choice of older and disabled people: a case study of shopping trips in London

Jan-Dirk Schmöcker et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:43 PST

This paper attempts to understand mode choice decisions among older and disabled people in London, with the objective of determining what policies can best meet their mobility and activity needs. A literature review is followed by a description of the data sets and modelling methods used in this analysis. Two assumptions are made on the marginal costs of car usage and it is shown that large investments (car, travelcards) are not amortized in the mode choice decisions made, but that marginal costs need to be appropriately specified. Age and disability interactions are shown to influence public transport use with those with disabilities preferring not to use public transport, although if healthy, older people will use buses and trams. The preference for taxis also increases with age when there is a disability. Public transport accessibility measures were also found to be associated with increased public transport use.

The case for and against mandatory age-based assessment of older drivers

J. Langford et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:38 PST

The greying of western society, together with older driver’s apparent over-involvement in crashes, have led to a widespread concern about older driver safety and future road casualty levels. For some, the maintenance – and perhaps tightening – of age-based mandatory assessment procedures is seen as an effective countermeasure to the threatened explosion in older driver crashes.This paper provides an overview of the evidence for and against age-based assessment. The case for regular assessment relies upon older drivers’ apparent over-representation in casualty crashes and the demographic changes that will increase the numbers of older drivers on the road. The case against age-based assessment is multiple: it has no demonstrable road safety benefits; it prompts premature cessation of driving; it prompts older people to use alternative transport modes that are riskier than the private car; and given its dwindling tax base, society will be unable to afford transport options to enable older people to maintain their quality of life.

It was concluded that unsafe drivers can best be identified not through mandatory age-based assessment but through a more strategic approach, relying upon referral only of identified at-risk drivers for multi-tiered assessment.

Does gendered driving create gendered mobility? Community-related mobility in Finnish women and men aged 65+

Anu Siren et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:34 PST

Older women are a largely invisible group in traffic research literature. Many phenomena related to ageing and transport are however likely to be gendered, although presented as gender neutral in research literature. The present study examined how gender-related differences in car driving and modal choices are reflected in the mobility options and resources of older women and men. The study was carried out as a mail survey among Finnish citizens aged 65 and above (N = 2500). The response rate was 62%. The results showed that older women did not have the option to drive as often as men did. They consequently had poorer overall mobility and were more dependent on being in good health and on getting help from other people for their personal mobility. The results imply that the intersection of both gender and age regimes create different standards for personal mobility for older women than for older men.

Senior travelers' trip chaining behavior: Survey results and data analysis

Kouros Mohammadian et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:30 PST

The research team conducted a survey of travel and activity scheduling behavior to better understand senior citizens’ trip chaining behavior in the Chicago metropolitan area’s most populous counties. The team used an internet-based, prompted recall activity-travel survey using Global Positioning System (GPS) devices to collect activity-travel diaries and other necessary information. This survey was conducted with 112 people living in 101 households in Northeastern Illinois’ Cook, DuPage, Lake, and Will Counties. Because aging is a growing concern among transportation planners, this survey focused especially on the elderly population, with approximately half of the survey sample consisting of elderly households and the remainder of non-elderly households. Each respondent within these households was asked to carry a portable GPS device ideally for 14 consecutive days and upload the collected data to a website at the end of each day to fill in their activity-travel survey questionnaires. The results suggest that GPS surveys have an improved ability to capture trips that are frequently under-reported; the use of prompted recall provides valuable data about the activity planning and scheduling process itself, which is not found in traditional surveys. Analysis of the decision-making process from the collected data reveals that some aspects of elderly travel behavior are intrinsically distinct from those of the younger population. Results indicate that while age does not affect some aspects of activity-travel behavior, it does affect such aspects as planning horizons, trip flexibility, and trip chaining practices. This study’s results can therefore be used to plan more efficient transit services targeting senior travelers and may help change their attitudes toward public transportation.

Transport and Ageing: Extending Quality of Life for Older People Via Public and Private Transport

Mary Gilhooly et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:25 PST

Accessible public transport and the independence that comes with car driving are generally thought to be linked to quality of life in old age. However, there has been almost no research on this topic in the UK. This study by researchers from the University of Paisley and the University of East London used a multi-method approach to explore the relationship between quality of life and access to public and private transport. The study also examined the extent to which the transport needs of older people are taken into account by transport professionals.

Transport and social inclusion: Have we made the connections in our cities?

Passenger Transport Executive Group (UK) PTEG — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:21 PST

This report provides an evaluation of progress on using transport to promote social inclusion, seven years on from publication of the influential 'Making the Connections'report on this subject by the Social Exclusion Unit (SEU).Promoting equality of opportunity now forms one of the Department for Transport's (DfT) five objectives for transport, but the DfT lacks an overarching plan for how this might be achieved - this report could offer a foundation for such a plan. For DfT, a public transport network that promotes social inclusion is one that is available, accessible, affordable and acceptable. This report considers the achievements, challenges and ways forward in each of these areas. Groups of people at particular risk of exclusion include those without a car, those on low incomes, people living in isolated housing estates and in deprived areas, disabled people, old people, children and young people, and those living in remote rural areas. Interventions to improve social inclusion can help several of these groups simultaneously. Improvements in demand responsive transport, such as flexibly routed bus services, are described. Brokerage schemes can bring together transport services and vehicles only otherwise used for part of the day. A key issue is ensuring that people have information on the public transport services available to them. The role of Passenger Transport Executives in improving social inclusion is described. The access for all scheme is described. Considerable progress has been made in the form of the National Concessionary Travel scheme which means that older and disabled people can travel off-peak for free. However, for other groups, particularly low income families, spiralling bus fares are undermining efforts to promote social inclusion. Child fares are seen as a particular problem. Smart ticketing systems are seen as an effective way of ensuring low income travellers pay lower fares. Key recommendations for improving the acceptability of public transport include ensuring new powers under the Local Transport Act are fully utilised to secure further improvements to service quality and continuing to monitor and address the safety concerns of passengers.

Explaining transport mode use of low-income persons for journey to work in urban areas: a case study of Ontario and Quebec

Ruben G. Mercado et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:17 PST

This article contributes to the growing research and policy interest on the challenges of achieving socially sustainable transportation. It analyses the determinants of transport mode use for journey to work among population groups considered as vulnerable to mobility and accessibility limitations. Using the 2001 Census of Canada, multilevel multinomial logistic regression models were estimated to assess the personal, social and economic factors that affect travel mode use of low-income persons in their journey to work in urban areas in Ontario and Quebec. The findings show important differences in the factors associated with car driving and public transit, between genders, and according to income level, educational achievement, household structure and immigration status. Furthermore, it is found that significant factors affecting travel mode use among low-income people in various urban areas are differentiated by province. The results point towards a geographic-based and balanced promotion of public and private mobility programmes and policies to address transport needs of low-income workers.

Transport policy and the provision of mobility options in an aging society: a case study of Ontario, Canada

Ruben Mercado et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:12 PST

This paper examines the provision of mobility options being one of the important policy areas vital to addressing transportation accessibility of the elderly. A provincial analysis, taking the case of the Province of Ontario in Canada, is warranted given that the country’s highly decentralized system puts provincial policies at the forefront in meeting this challenge. The paper evaluates the important progress made in this policy area and stressed the need to go beyond the traditional policy focus on the less able-bodied elderly and consider the increased heterogeneity of the elderly population with respect to lifestyle, preferences, resources, health and physical abilities. While significant efforts have been made, a more explicit recognition of population aging in Ontario’s transport policy motivation that could strongly influence transport strategies and investments attuned to the mobility concerns in an aging society remains to be seen. The paper summarizes the general concerns in the literature, policy developments, and the challenges in crafting solutions in terms of policy and research for Ontario and other regions with similar institutional setup.

Understanding the transportation situation of Canadian adults with disabilities

Antonio Páez et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:08 PST

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, as part of its mandate to improve the well-being and quality of life of Canadians, is concerned with the ability of individuals who face disabilities to fully participate in society and to achieve independent living. Since a vast majority of activities and services are spatially dispersed and can be conducted only in person, transportation is believed to be an important aspect that affects the prospects for inclusive and independent life. There are two dimensions that influence the ability of individuals to effectively use transportation and engage in activities. At the individual level, disabling barriers may be caused by medical physical or psychological conditions, or impairments. At the societal level, inadequate responses through institutions, services, and built environment, can also make it difficult for individuals with impairments to fully exercise their human rights. In order to identify the enabling and disabling factors that may influence fuller participation in the economic, social, and cultural life of adult Canadians with disabilities, it is important to consider the individual (impairments), spatial (transportation-mediated), and societal (services and institutions) dimensions of disabilities. The present report contributes to this goal by developing a profile of disabilities and transportation in Canada. Conceptually, the social exclusion framework provides the basis to generate a new profile of transportation and disabilities. This is a theoretical construct that facilitates our understanding of the different factors that affect participation from the perspective of various population segments of special interest. In the particular case of individuals who face disabling conditions, the social exclusion perspective provides a valuable bridge between the two dominant models of disabilities. Of these, the individual model attributes disabilities to the inability of individuals to perform at “normal” levels of competency. The social model, on the other hand, considers disabilities to be a consequence of a failure of society to accommodate the special needs of individuals with impairments. From a social exclusion perspective, individual, social, and environmental factors are thought to act in combination to influence accessibility and activity participation outcomes. In this way, disabilities are not considered to be purely the result of circumstances that randomly affect some unfortunate few, but the framework also recognizes that individual conditions are essential to understand activity participation. The social exclusion framework is used in this report to identify various factors that may affect activity participation, including availability and usage of various transportation services. Statistical analysis of the 2006 Participation and Activity Limitation Survey (PALS) provides evidence of factors that influence employment status, commuting distance, and student status. The report also investigates the frequency of participation on a range of other activities, namely visiting friends, doing exercise, attending events, and visiting public spaces. These outcomes are indicative of the ability to participate in the economic life of the country. Finally, desire for more leisure is also investigated as a subjective factor that indicates satisfaction with one’s own ability to recreate and enjoy non-economic activities. The results indicate that the type and severity of disabilities are significant factors that influence the outcomes investigated, but sometimes in unanticipated ways. For instance mild disabilities are associated with a lower probability of being employed, relative to moderate iii | Understanding the transportation situation of Canadian adults with disabilities and severe disabilities. In terms of transportation, usage of various modes, mode availability, and requiring assistance using various modes of transportation are revealed as significant factors affecting the various outcomes investigated. The report concludes by identifying knowledge gaps, and avenues for future research. This includes the clarification of results that may appear counter-intuitive at first glance, the examination of higher level outcomes such as satisfaction with life and social network effects, and the potential of telecommunications to improve the “extensibility” of activities, to create participation spaces that do not require physical co-location.

The relationship between transport and disadvantage in Australia

Kate Rosier et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:58:04 PST

This Resource Sheet is designed to provide practitioners and policy-makers who plan and/or deliver services to children and families, especially within disadvantaged communities, with an understanding of how transport and disadvantage intersect and why some groups are especially vulnerable to transport disadvantage.Ongoing difficulties associated with access to transport are commonly referred to as “transport disadvantage”. As Australia has comparatively high levels of car ownership, difficulties associated with maintaining private transport (e.g., financial stress related to initial cost of purchase, as well ongoing costs such as petrol, insurance, car purchase and maintenance) could also be included in the overall definition of transport disadvantage.The proportion of Australians who feel they cannot or often cannot get to places they need to visit is fairly small (4%). However, Australians in the bottom income quintile are much more likely to experience transport difficulties than those in the top income quintile (9.9% and 1.3% respectively) (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2006). Transport disadvantage is experienced by specific sub-groups in the population, for example, families with young children, people with a disability and Indigenous Australians. Transport disadvantage is also common in specific geographical locations such as outer-urban (or “fringe”) areas, rural and remote Australia. In outer-urban areas transport disadvantage is the result of a range of intersecting factors including poor public transport infrastructure, a higher proportion of low-income households and the need to travel further distances in order to get to places of employment, services and activities. Rural and remote areas of Australia have low levels of public transport access. Some remote areas have relatively low levels of vehicle ownership. Transport options for Indigenous Australians in remote communities and communities located in fringe urban areas are limited. A significant proportion of Indigenous Australians living in remote areas have no access to public transport and one-third have no access to a car. Cars in remote Indigenous communities are heavily used and, due to the fact that they are often purchased second hand and used in rough terrain, maintenance is expensive and they often have a short lifespan. Even outside of non-remote areas a significant proportion of Indigenous Australians have no access to public transport. Young mothers and sole parents are particularly vulnerable to transport disadvantage. For these groups, transport difficulties can play a key role in social exclusion. Public transport can be difficult for people with a disability. Factors such as accessibility, communication about changes or cancelled services and malfunctioning equipment (e.g., lifts to train platforms) can all contribute to transport disadvantage for people with a disability.

The effect of bus fare increases on low income families

Passenger Transport Executive Group UK (PTEG) — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:57:59 PST

Bus fare increases have a disproportionate effect on low income families who: ‐ are most likely to rely on buses to get around ‐ need to spend a higher proportion of their income on bus travel ‐ struggle to access the best fare deals ‐ have the added costs of paying for children’s travel ‐ can find transport costs a barrier to employment This paper suggests that the following could all help to reduce the effect of bus fare rises on low income families: ‐ Maintenance of support for bus services ‐ Introduction of Oyster style ticketing outside of London ‐ Development of a simple, consistent offer on child fares ‐ Support for jobseekers through ‘WorkWise’ schemes ‐ Use of the powers contained in the Local Transport Act.

Total Transport

Passenger Transport Executive Group UK (PTEG) — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:57:55 PST

A key role of transport is to connect people to opportunity. Opportunity to work, play, learn and to stay healthy and happy. A good public transport, walking and cycling network helps to ensure that everyone can reach these opportunities, regardless of where they live, their income, age, ability or level of confidence. Such a network can also be an end in itself, promoting good health by challenging sedentary lifestyles and creating cleaner, safer and more pleasant environments. Public transport, walking and cycling offer the keys to achieving a wide variety of policy goals from tackling obesity to increasing employment, helping people retain their independence to supporting children to take part in positive activities. As such they are of great value to many sectors outside of transport, including health, social care, employment and education. Too often, however, transport is overlooked by those sectors that stand to benefit most from it. Transport is, by its nature, something that happens while you’re on your way to other things. The other things get the attention – the job outcome, the football practice, the hospital appointment – but these could not happen if people were unable to reach them. Exactly how people reach those activities is also important. Changing the way people travel can have a significant impact on the health and wellbeing of communities. The downplaying of public transport, walking and cycling could be due to a simple failure to grasp just how vital non-car based transport is to a large proportion of the population (a quarter of all households lack access to a car) or the benefits it could bring to people’s health, wealth and wellbeing. It could also be that other sectors are reluctant to admit the importance of transport to their work for fear that they might have to pay more of a contribution towards it. Or it could be that the internal wiring of government has tended to discourage cross-sector working. Whatever the reason, the consequence is that the transport sector itself bears the vast majority of the costs for interventions whose primary benefits accrue to other policy areas, ranging from initiatives to encourage people to walk and cycle more to ring and ride bus services that enable older people to retain their independence for longer. With the current squeeze on spending, the transport sector will become less able to support these kinds of schemes, something that could have severe consequences for the ability of other sectors to meet their own policy goals. Spending constraints have meant, for example, that a number of PTE-led WorkWise schemes (which support jobseekers to overcome transport barriers to employment) have already had to close or reduce in scope. Even if this were not the case, it would still seem sensible for other sectors to recognise the value of transport to their work and to invest in it accordingly. Public transport, walking and cycling measures can be among the most cost effective means of tackling wider policy goals.

Determinants of distance traveled with a focus on the elderly: a multilevel analysis in the Hamilton CMA, Canada

Ruben Mercado et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:57:51 PST

The objective of this study is to investigate the determinants of mean trip distance traveled by different mode types. The study uses data from the Hamilton CMA in Canada, and multilevel models to investigate the variables that impact distance traveled, with a specific focus on demographic aging factors. The results of the study validate previous findings regarding the decline in distance traveled as age advances. In addition, it is found that: (1) while this effect of age is present for all modes analyzed (car driving, car passenger, and bus) it is considerably more marked for car driving; (2) there are significant effects compounded by the interrelated factors of gender, employment constraints, household contextual factors; and (3) neighbourhoods with high commercial and residential mix showed a negative relation with distance traveled only in the case of car driver.

Trip generation of vulnerable populations in three Canadian cities: a spatial ordered probit approach

Matthew J. Roorda et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:57:46 PST

This paper provides an analysis of trip generation of three vulnerable groups: single-parent families, low income households, and the elderly. It compares the mobility of these groups to that of the general population in three Canadian urban areas of Hamilton, Montreal and Toronto, based on data from large-sample metropolitan transport surveys. An ordered probit model with spatially expanded coefficients is used for the analysis. Spatial expansion shows that there are spatial mobility trends for elderly populations and low-income populations even after socio-economic attributes are accounted for. Such spatial differences are not generally found for single parent families. This novel spatial analysis provides clues as to where vulnerable populations may experience greater degrees of social exclusion. It provides information to help prioritize transportation infrastructure projects or other social programs to take into account the needs of vulnerable populations with the lowest levels of mobility.

Travel behavior within Canada’s older population: a cohort analysis

K. Bruce Newbold et al. — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:57:42 PST

The unprecedented demographic change of the aging Canadian society has raised numerous questions, including the provision of health care and the national pension plan to an increasingly large older population. Surprisingly, however, there is little Canadian literature regarding the travel behavior of its older population, an oversight that this paper addresses. Using the 1986, 1992, and 1998 General Social Surveys and pseudo-cohort methods, this paper addresses changing driving behavior among older Canadians, and compares the ‘old’ and ‘transitional old’ to younger-aged cohorts. Results indicate that while older Canadians undertake fewer trips, and travel for different reasons than those in the labor force, their reliance upon the private automobile for transportation is no less significant. Specifically, we demonstrate that the number of trips by car with older drivers increase over the study period as the population ages.

Measuring Service Gaps Accessibility-Based Transit Need Index

Transportation Research Board of the National Academies — Sun, 05 Feb 2012 16:57:25 PST

The integration of transit needs into transit accessibility indexing is important for evaluating existing transportation systems and service gaps and for identifying priority areas for investments in transportation infrastructure. This study detailed an indexing model for accessibility of transit need and focused on the necessity of evaluating transit needs and transit accessibility simultaneously. A need index was developed to identify areas in high need of public transit services from economic and sociodemographic information, and a composite accessibility index was developed to identify levels of access to transit services and shortcomings in providing service. The need for transit service was then modeled as the lack of transit accessibility, and the model correlated different access indicators with their ability to predict transit service need. This model mapped areas with different levels of transit accessibility and transit needs by using a single score, which may be easily interpreted by planners who examine transit equity. The model was applied to the city of Meriden, Connecticut, and results were compared with a general approach for consistency and effectiveness. The usefulness of the model was also highlighted through a representative example of the model's application.